Environmental Geology GEOL 406/506

 The Bigger Picture: Global Processes, Resources and Our Ecological Footprint

Module 12

by Jacqueline HarveyReading assignment: Chapter 14 - 17

I. INTRODUCTION

"We have the technology to expand the horizons and options of mankind, hasten its descent into the swamp of overpopulation, or wipe the slate clean and let nature try again." - Raymond S. Leonard

A. THE WEB OF LIFE

From the human perspective the Earth can be considered a closed system. We have not yet developed the technology to leave this world behind and head into space in search of a new one. The air we breathe, the water we drink, the resources we use and take for granted are the only ones available to us.

From the human perspective the Earth can be considered a closed system. We have not yet developed the technology to leave this world behind and head into space in search of a new one. The air we breathe, the water we drink, the resources we use and take for granted are the only ones available to us. All global processes, and our human interactions within them, are continuously recycled and inextricably intertwined. Every branch of science teaches us this truth. For example, Ecology shows how all things are interconnected, Quantum Physics shows how all things are inseparable and Thermodynamics shows that nothing is created or destroyed - it only changes form. Religions, mysticism philosophies, all attest to this relationship. The lives of indigenous peoples around the world have been shaped by the knowledge. Recall a quote from Chief Seattle referred to in an earlier module:

"This we know: the Earth does not belong to man, man belongs to the Earth. All things are connected like the blood that unites us all. Man did not weave the web of life, he is but a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web he does to himself " - Chief Seattle (recorded in 1852)

Unfortunately, modem humans are attempting to live outside of the laws and boundaries of our natural world. We are drastically stressing each of Earth's life-support systems, resource cycles, organisms (including Homo sapiens sapiens) and environmental compartments. Micro-scale problems are overlain by macro-scale problems. Regardless of scale, all of these problems are global in scope requiring global efforts of cooperation if solutions are to be found.

In our blind desire to have more, work less and do whatever "feels good", we have totally unbalanced the planetary equilibrium. Human-related impacts to the global environment have reached crisis proportions - a state of affairs that cannot last much longer. Le Chatlier's Principle (from Chemistry) states that a system disturbed from its equilibrium will alter itself in order to establish a new one. Gibbs Free Energy from Thermodynamics also shows that a system will always seek its most stable, steady state. The question is whether or not the human species will be a part of Earth's next equilibrium. If we are then fundamental changes in the way we think about all aspects of human needs and desires will be required. Our ever-increasing understanding of the natural world makes it clear that a new global society able to sustain itself now, and into the future, must evolve. This module draws upon all of the concepts of Environmental Geology thus far, and examines "the bigger picture" of the current state of Earth's affairs, and our human relationship to them.  The module should provide you with a unifying picture, and a good review of course material. Re-visit earlier modules if you need to!

From the human perspective the Earth can be considered a closed system. We have not yet developed the technology to leave this world behind and head into space in search of a new one. The air we breathe, the water we drink, the resources we use and take for granted are the only ones available to us. All global processes, and our human interactions within them, are continuously recycled and inextricably intertwined. Every branch of science teaches us this truth. For example, Ecology shows how all things are interconnected, Quantum Physics shows how all things are inseparable and Thermodynamics shows that nothing is created or destroyed - it only changes form. Religions, mysticism philosophies, all attest to this relationship. The lives of indigenous peoples around the world have been shaped by the knowledge. Recall a quote from Chief Seattle referred to in an earlier module:

"This we know: the Earth does not belong to man, man belongs to the Earth. All things are connected like the blood that unites us all. Man did not weave the web of life, he is but a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web he does to himself " - Chief Seattle (recorded in 1852)

Unfortunately, modem humans are attempting to live outside of the laws and boundaries of our natural world. We are drastically stressing each of Earth's life-support systems, resource cycles, organisms (including Homo sapiens sapiens) and environmental compartments. Micro-scale problems are overlain by macro-scale problems. Regardless of scale, all of these problems are global in scope requiring global efforts of cooperation if solutions are to be found.

In our blind desire to have more, work less and do whatever "feels good", we have totally unbalanced the planetary equilibrium. Human-related impacts to the global environment have reached crisis proportions - a state of affairs that cannot last much longer. Le Chatlier's Principle (from Chemistry) states that a system disturbed from its equilibrium will alter itself in order to establish a new one. Gibbs Free Energy from Thermodynamics also shows that a system will always seek its most stable, steady state. The question is whether or not the human species will be a part of Earth's next equilibrium. If we are then fundamental changes in the way we think about all aspects of human needs and desires will be required. Our ever-increasing understanding of the natural world makes it clear that a new global society able to sustain itself now, and into the future, must evolve. This module draws upon all of the concepts of Environmental Geology thus far, and examines "the bigger picture" of the current state of Earth's affairs, and our human relationship to them. The module should provide you with a unifying picture, and a good review of course material. Re-visit earlier modules if you need to!

B. CHANGES ARE REQUIRED

Current human activities must cease to deplete Earth's natural resources beyond the planet's capacity to regenerate those resources. People will need to begin looking beyond their immediate concerns and make decisions capable of meeting the physical, educational and social needs of all Human Beings. We are confronting worldwide problems and they will not be solved until all people are able to stand on common ground in genuine equality. Social, economic and technological needs, practices and objectives must be reformed to remain within the limits of the natural world and natural systems.

The primary change that will have to occur that our current resource use and distribution patterns must be altered to ones compatible with the goal of a long-term perspective. Of equal importance, local environmental impact assessments must give rise to global impact assessments. It is no longer adequate to base decisions on the idea that growth and consumption can be unlimited because natural resources are free for the taking (i.e. the "Myth of Superabundance").

In terms of energy and resources the following three global principles offer guidance

These considerations are significant and highly relevant at this time. Estimates of actual years remaining may vary, but the overall conclusion is that many of the resources used to facilitate modern patterns of development are in danger of being completely consumed if present usage trends continue. For example, even if extraction methods significantly improved (realistic improvement is10-25%) this would only add 60 years to the global oil supply.

In addition to the new resource use perspective outlined above, another important change required is that Human Beings regain their sense of community. Local concerns and economies need to become as important as global concerns. The extreme interdependence of people and countries will have to give way to an "old-fashioned" self-reliance and self-sustainability. The cumulative environmental costs of processing, packaging and transporting can be tremendous. Individuals and communities must again supply their own goods, services and sustenance

Excessive interdependence leads to environmental harm, and severely limits the options and choices available to nations. Conflicts and wars arise over the allocation of resources when importing nations are suddenly cut off from their supplies. The Persian Gulf War may well be an example of this. This war also resulted in severe environmental degradation due to the vast quantities of oil deliberately released by the Iraqis as a part of their "strategy". In addition a false sense of security may develop and impede the development of sound, sustainable alternatives for our future. For example, research into alternative energy briefly became a main objective during the oil crunch of the 1970s, and was quickly forgotten when the crunch ended. Many developing nations are rapidly degrading their environments in order to produce goods for trade in the global free market. Coffee production, the sale of tropical hardwoods and conversion of forests into caffle grazing acreage are but a few examples. Figures ** and ***, and Table ** provide examples of the USA's dependence on foreign resources.

II. SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM

Given that development of the modern world has been driven by free market forces to date it is possible that the transition to a sustainable world could be problematic. The current state of affairs may leave us with no other option however. The multiple environmental problems that have been created could well dictate our future choices. An overview of some of the major aspects of this intense pressure for change is given below.

A. AIR POLLUTION

The degradation of air quality is a serious issue. Gaseous and particulate pollutants are damaging human health and the environment through a variety of primary and secondary means.

Examples of some the main contaminants of concern are:

Table ** describes the characteristics of several major contaminants.

Air pollution causes a wide variety of environmental problems. First, there are direct effects to human health. Contaminants, especially particulates of colloidal diameter, are thought to cause lung cancer, asthma and other respiratory illnesses. Acute effects can lead to death or permanent illness. Pollutants such as SOx and NOx result in acid rain. Some contribute to global warming (C0₂) while others destroy the ozone layer (VOCs, CFCs, NOx). Smog and haze create visibility problems, as well as acute respiratory symptoms.

Six out of every ten Americans live in areas that fail to meet one or more national air quality standards. Air quality in urban areas is particularly comprised. (Table **) Significant numbers of young people and elderly people die each year as a result of acute air pollution events in cities around the world.  Locally (for ISU), the major air pollutant of concern in Pocatello is PM-10 (particulate matter 10). PM-10 consists of very small particles of dust and debris that are less than 10 microns in size (100 times smaller than the thickness of a human hair). The national standard for PM- 10 is determined two ways. First there is a 24-hour standard. This states that total releases must be less than 150 micrograms per cubic meter of air in any 24-hour period. The second standard is an annual standard. This states that total yearly releases of PM- 10 must not exceed 50 micrograms per cubic meter of air. At this time Pocatello is a non-attainment area for the national PM-10 standards. These particulates are small enough to be easily inhaled and absorbed into lung tissue. PM-10 can cause lung cancers, asthma, and aggravate existing respiratory problems. If the particulate matter is of hazardous origin it can deliver toxic substances directly into the lungs. PM-10 comes from the combustion of wood and fossil fuels, industrial processes, wind-blown dust, road dust and other forms of erosion. PM-10 is also a large component of tobacco smoke.

CLICK HERE TO FOCUS IN ON AIR POLLUTION ADD LIST OF WEB SITES OF INTEREST TASK: what air pollutants cause the most concern in your area?

B. CARBON DIOXIDE OR "THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT"

The current atmospheric carbon dioxide [C0₂] concentration is 350ppm (0.035 vol.%). Rate of increase is approximately 1ppm/year. (Fig.**) Although general consensus exists on these points, future concentration projection scenarios vary. This is due to the large number of variables - primarily changes in human usage patterns of fossil fuels. (Figs.**,**,**) Consider one such scenario: If the rate of increase remains constant at 1ppm/year, C0₂ concentrations may double by 2050. This is of great concern due to the greenhouse properties of carbon dioxide gas. Doubling atmospheric C0₂ would lead to a 1.5 to 4.5 0C rise in Earth's average surface temperature. (Fig.**)   Such a drastic increase would have broad environmental consequences. An interesting example is the impact that global temperature change may have on Small Island Nations.   Increasing surface temperatures by the above amount would lead to a planet-wide rise in ocean levels of 20 - 140 cm.  Agriculture, water resources, coastal and low-lying regions, and other such areas would all be severely affected.

CLICK HERE TO FOCUS IN ON THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT ADD LIST OF WEB SITES OF INTEREST TASK: what economic and environmental imapacts might occur in your area as a result of an increase in global temperature, or a rise in ocean level? (ex: the economy my collapse in a mountain town that is dependent on winter recreation)

C. THE OZONE LAYER

At approximately 25-30km in the stratosphere a layer of ozone gas (03) shields the surface of the Earth from the sun's mutagenic ultraviolet radiation. Ozone molecules are extremely effective at absorbing UV in the 220nm-330nm range. This is the same range of wavelengths having the greatest potential to alter DNA. Without the vital protective function of the stratospheric ozone layer tremendous damage would occur to all terrestrial organisms.

The past two decades have seen significant decreases in overall 03 concentrations. Increases in size of the holes in the ozone layer over the Polar Regions have also been observed.  Figure ** illustrates these trends and presents a troubling statistic:human skin cancer rates may increase 5-7 percent for every 1 percent decrease in ozone levels.

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D. ACID DEPOSITION

Acid deposition (the combination of acidic particles and precipitation) is having negative impacts in multiple areas. Vegetation die-off, poisoning of surface waters, death of aquatic organisms, destruction of monuments and other objects of our cultural heritage have become commonplace.

Figure **** shows the global distribution of acid deposition in terms of the pH level of annual precipitation. Regions displaying the lowest pH correlate to those that are the most heavily industrialized, or are downwind from such regions. The long term human health impacts of acid deposition are currently unclear.

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E. WATER POLLUTION

"It is indeed ironic that in a food-poor world, nutrient-rich wastes from over-fertilized fields are causing excessive plant growth in many lakes and reservoirs."- Stanley E. Manahan

Earth's water supplies are rapidly becoming contaminated. Oceans, lakes, streams, rivers and groundwater around the world are compromised. This poses serious problems to Human Beings due to our total dependence on fresh water for survival. (Fig. **)

Groundwater is used for irrigation, as a drinking water supply, as a source of all household water, for industrial operations needing water, and for a variety of other purposes. (Fig. **) In numerous places people are draining the underlying aquifers faster than nature can recharge them. Rapid withdrawals have caused the water table to drop. This has led to many streams and springs drying up and an increase in desert-like conditions (desertification).

Some regions depend entirely on groundwater for all of their water needs. Unfortunately, in many of these areas dependence results because pollution has rendered surface waters unsuitable for use. Contaminants entering the aquifer via recharge, leaking underground storage tanks (LUSTs), leachate from buried wastes and landfills and other routes are severely degrading water supplies in developed and developing nations. As a local example consider the Portneuf Aquifer. Pocatello is totally dependent upon groundwater resources for all fresh water supplies, and it is currently polluted with carcinogenic solvents.

The planet's oceans are also being compromised. The dumping of waste, spills from oil tankers and other container ships, increasing numbers of motorized ocean-going vessels, over-fishing and other impacts are in progress. By damaging the oceans we are not only ruining valuable food resources, but are also interfering with Earth's major climate control system, as well as with what may well become a significant source of water for future geneartions.

In addition to problems caused by acid deposition, surface waters (lakes and streams) are suffering the effects of human induced eutrophication. Phosphate-rich water from sewage, storm water overflow and agricultural runoff creates algal blooms that drastically increase the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the receiving waters. This leads to oxygen depletion, which in turn leads to damage or death of aerobic aquatic organisms.

CLICK HERE TO REVISIT MODULE 8 - WATER POLLUTION ADD LIST OF WEB SITES OF INTEREST

F. DEPENDENCY ON TOXIC CHEMICALS

"If we are going to live so intimately with these chemicals - eating and drinking them, taking them into the very marrow of our bones - we had better know something about their nature and their power." - Rachel Carson, Silent Spring

An overwhelming number of the products that we encounter in our daily lives are hazardous. Toxic chemicals have become ubiquitous to the global environment. Virtually every aspect of modern activity involves hazardous compounds. Household products contain them, industrial and medical processes involve them, and agriculture uses them in the form of pesticides and herbicides. In many instances we have come to take these compounds for granted yet. Hazardous wastes can cause serious harm to human health and the environment. Each year the United States alone releases 892,000 tons of toxic air emissions. The improper disposal of hazardous wastes can cause multiple problems. Consider a few possibilities:

Pesticides and herbicides are not only toxic to the intended target organism, but may be toxic to humans as well. There are multiple health effects resulting from pesticide exposure. Eye, nose and throat irritation is common, central nervous system and kidney damage may occur, cancer risks may be elevated. Headaches, dizziness, muscle spasms, and nausea are typical symptoms of exposure. These chemicals may also cause long term damage to vision and memory. At certain levels of exposure they are lethal. The American Association of Poison Control Centers reports that pesticides inadvertently poisoned 79,000 children in 1990.

A number of contaminants display extreme environmental recalcitrance and can persist for long periods. Bioaccumulation of many of these compounds creates steadily increasing concentrations in plants and animals. A familiar example is DDT. This pesticide was used to control Malaria-causing mosquitoes. DDT persists in the environment, and readily accumulates in the tissues of birds eating contaminated food. DDT interferes with avian reproductive functions and causes eggshells to become thin and fragile. When birds roost their eggs break. DDT use was what motivated Rachel Carson's seminal work "Silent Spring". This book heralded the beginnings of environmental awareness, and led to the subsequent ban on use of the pesticide within the USA. Howevere, production and export continued sugnificantly longer and DDT is now detected in every environmental compartmnent and phase on earth.

At the local scale, Idaho industrial processes generated 878,309 tons of hazardous wastes in 1996 (a 28% decrease from the 1995 total of 1,219,964 tons). The bulk of the waste was hazardous wastewater, which accounted for 97.9% of the total (859,410 tons). The remaining 18,900 tons of hazardous waste generated consisted of a variety of types including characteristic; mixed; Treatment, Storage and Disposal (TSD); solvents; remediation wastes and others.

CLICK HERE TO REVISIT MODULE 9 - WASTE MANAGEMENT CLICK HERE TO REVISIT MODULE 10 - RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT ADD LIST OF WEB SITES OF INTEREST

G. DEFORESTATION/HABITAT DESTRUCTION/MASS EXTICTIONS

Deforestation (or the loss of forest cover) has become a serious problem. The rate of forest loss increases more rapidly each year. Forest destruction is particularly acute in tropical areas dominated by rainforest. (Fig.**) Huge losses of trees vital to the global C0₂/0₂ balance occur each day, along with concomitant losses in biodiversity. Resources are disappearing before they can be discovered. Over half of the world's tropical forests have disappeared since 1950. Tropical rainforests have the highest density and variety of species known.Typically, cleared tropical forest soils are only productive for about three years. Rapid nutrient leaching and erosion rates quickly make the land un-farmable. Eventually soils harden into clay, thereby making it impossible for forest species to re-colonize once humans abandon the area.

An estimated 17,500 species per year are driven to extinction. Indeed, Human Beings are causing the extinction of species at a greater rate than any other event in geologic history.  Deforestation can also cause extreme degradation of soils due to erosion and leaching of nutrients. In tropical forests this is particularly enhanced by the high precipitation rates. In addition to forest destruction, Human Beings are severely affecting all of Earth's other habitats as well.

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H. SOIL EROSION/DEGRADATION

Widespread impacts are occurring to soils and crop lands across the world. Soil loss, soil damage, nutrient leaching, urban sprawl and declining fertility are just a few of these. Erosion of land causes a number of problems. Blowing dust creates a health and safety hazard. Poor visibility and high PM-10 dispersal are especially problematic. Silt pollution of rivers and other surface water is a growing problem. Exposing the soil as a result of overgrazing can result in wind erosion problems as severe as those caused by leaving ground bare during crop rotations. Overgrazing can also lead to the degradation of rivers and streams.

Valuable topsoil is lost during erosion events, and soil fertility declines with time. This causes economic and food supply losses due to declining crop yields. Soil degradation also leads to increased reliance on fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals in order to improve productivity. Unfortunately, while this may improve yields in the short term, long term crop yields invariably decline. (Fig. **) Globally, the amount of useable farmland is steadily decreasing, both due to loss of productivity as well as population increases.  In 1955 there were 0.453 arable hectares/person. By 1980 this figure had dropped to 0.318 hectares/person, and it is projected to fall further to only 0.15 hectares/person by the year 2000.

Poor agricultural practices are creating potentially disastrous situations. Increasing reliance on monocultures is causing alarming declines in global biodiversity. Agricultural subsidies permit farmers and ranchers to engage in unsound practices without having to suffer consequences or costs.  Diets rich in meats overuse valuable resources and further displace Earth's energy and material balance. (Fig. **)

CLICK HERE TO FOCUS IN ON SOIL EROSION/DEGRADATION ADD LIST OF WEB SITES OF INTEREST Go to the Idaho Watersheds Project Web Site: http://www.idahowatersheds.org/ TASK:

I. POVERTY AND INEQUALITY

Poverty and inequality in all ways are extremely prevalent. An immense disparity exists between the rich and the poor. Figure ** shows current and projected per capita incomes, while Figure ** shows real numbers of people living in abject poverty. Tremendous differences in access to things such as education, medical care; food and fresh water exist between citizens of the industrialized world, and those who live in developing nations. (Figs. **,**) Diseases such as Cholera and Typhoid are still common in many developing countries due to a lack of modern sanitation capabilities. Table ** provides an excellent overview of global quality-of-life indicators.

Such inequalities do not exist solely between nations either. Large differences in standards of living occur within the borders of even the most "advanced" countries. In the United States alone 30 million people are starving. Differences in per capita income are comparable to those of the poorest nations. The wealthiest 20% of Americans earn 8.9 times as much as the poorest 20%. This income disparity is comparable to that of Honduras, Jamaica and Kenya. One percent of our nation's population owns more than the combined total of the poorest 92%..

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III. POSSIBLE CAUSES OF OUR WIDE REACHING PROBLEMS

A. THE DESIRE FOR AFFLUENCE AND THE MYTH OF THE GROWTH ECONOMY

"The love of possessions is a disease with them." - Chief Sitting Bull

Based on my initial evaluation it appears that the major cause of our current problems seems to be the overwhelming desire for affluence. Human material wealth and comfort are the number one priority. Governments and economies of virtually every nation are built on the premise that unlimited growth is both possible and desirable. Production and consumption are the primary driving forces presently shaping our human societies. The belief is that equality will be attained when we all have equivalent amounts of material goods and incomes. Yet traditional growth is clearly inadequate.

Worldwide rates of development, as defined by the Gross National Product (GNP), are extremely slow averaging only 1.3-1.6% per year.  Robert McNamara (President of the World Bank in 1983) stated that, "Even if the growth rate of the poor countries doubles, only 7 would close the gap with the rich nations in 100 years. Only another 9 would reach our level in 1000 years."  Clearly it will take far too long for global equality to be attained - even if our global environment is able to absorb the strain.

Regardless of this fact, rates of production and consumption are steadily increasing as if we live in a limitless world.  The bulk of current human desires depend on the availability of energy. The conclusion seems obvious then that most of our major en~ronmental problems are the direct result of the acquisition and excessive use of energy and energy-producing materials. (Fig.**) Ever-increasing numbers of people (most eventually wanting "mansions and minivans" of their own) compounds this problem.

B. THE POPULATION EXPLOSION AND CARRYING CAPACITY

Despite declining global birth rates the overall number of Human Beings is increasing by about 80 million per year. This is most likely because the human population has entered an exponential growth phase. (Fig.**). It is estimated that there will be between 8-11 billion people by the middle of next century. **Look in Nat. Geo for the Date of the "planet birthday for 6 billion..***(Fig.**) Some suggestion has been made that the Earth may not be able to support such huge numbers.

The idea that a particular environment has a finite capacity to sustain the life of a particular population is Imown as Carrying Capacity (K). While a simple subsistence Carrying Capacity measure may suffice for other organisms, it is improbable that this will be the case with humans. Having experienced another style of living it seems unlikely that people will be content to simply hunt and gather as they once did. The idea of a cultural K has therefore been presented. Analysis of global population and available resources under this concept indicates that the Earth may only be able to support 2 billion people indefinitely at the high standard of living many of us have come to accept as the norm.   This has profound implications. If we are to adapt to our growing numbers everyone must reduce their needs and desires.

The increasing population is already placing tremendous strain on the planet's life support systems. Deforestation is on the rise - largely due to people in poor countries attempting to meet subsistence needs. Pollution rates are climbing as a result of over-consumption by citizens of the industrialized nations, and because citizens of the developing nations are frequently unable to afford state-of- the-art technologies as they attempt to industrialize. Teenage pregnancy, illiteracy; shifis in age demographics and population demographics, (Fig.**) changing land use patterns and more all attest to the growing pressures of overpopulation.

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"...resources are shifted to suit those who can best pay for them, the rich, and not to those who need them most, the poor." - G. Lacey

1. OUR TECHNOLOGICAL WORLD

By accepting energy use and misuse as the main source of global environmental degradation it becomes possible to assess the causes of many problems as well as potential solutions. Table ** outlines some major human impacts to the global environment that are attributable to energy supply. It is crucial to realize that population numbers alone are insufficient to portray actual impacts. Per capita energy use statistics are far more significant. A broad comparison of per capita energy use is given in Table **. For a more detailed and current breakdown of energy production, trade and consumption CLICK HERE. Regardless of which comparative figures are used it is obvious that the industrialized nations are consuming far more than their fair share of Earth's energy producing resources.

TASK

Take a look at an example of how things we take for granted may be a part of the overall problems now facing us all.  Go to the Environmental Defense Fund's Interactive Electricity Site and find out about your personal contribution to atmospheric pollution.  Then answer the following questions:

1. What percentage of your energy comes from coal? Natural gas? Nuclear power? Hydroelectric?

2. What is your annual contribution to atmospheric CO2 levels?

3. What were your thoughts when you saw the emissions that you produce? What can you do to minimize this?

Americans use as much as twice the per capita energy of persons living in developing nations. Near-total reliance on manufactured goods and convenience appliances are largely responsible for these huge disparities. (Tables **,**)   This situation requires correction. The long-term costs of energy production using currently accepted technologies are readily becoming apparent. The primary cause of major environmental disasters discussed above (such as the greenhouse effect, the destruction of the ozone layer, degraded air and water quality and acid deposition) is the burning of fossil fuels in order to facilitate the production of energy. (Fig. **).

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2. TRANSPORTATION AND THE PETROLEUM DEPENDENCY

Industry and household appliances cannot account for all of the energy consumed each year. Mechanized transportation is a significant end-user of global reserves. (Fig.**;Table **) Transportation activities are also responsible for vast quantities of atmospheric pollution emissions. (Fig.**;Table **). The production, distribution and use of petroleum are the main energy-related activities associated with transportation. (Figs.**,**,**). These activities are also responsible for critical pollution events - both macro-scale and micro-scale: such as the infamous Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska or an example from an earlier module based on non-point oil pollution:

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D. APATHY

It is also possible that social apathy could be at the root of our problems. Complacency, induced by the ease with which material needs are satisfied in the developed nations, has a great number of detrimental effects. Our sense of community and responsibility is disappearing, and social unrest is taking its place. Increases in violence, depression, suicide rates, dependence on mass media for culture, desensitization, and the breakdown of the nuclear family are but a few of the manifestations of a growing apathy. In having become so dependent on corporations and governments to provide for us we have lost something essential to human existence. In order to construct a sustainable world it may first be necessary to remind people of why they would want one in the first place.

IV. PARADIGM SHIFT: POPULATION/EDUCATION/RELIGION

If all of the prevailing trends leading to certain disaster are to be reversed crucial changes in how people think will be required. A global paradigm shift is in order. CLICK FOR COMPONENTS OF THE PARADIGM SHIFT. From the paradigm shift table it is apparent that the move towards a sustainable society will require a multi-faceted approach. Deeply engrained philosophies, religious ideals, and the entire economic status quo must be challenged and changed. The major impetus for such significant change is education. Indisputable correlation between educational level and changes in lifestyle exist. This is particularly true for women. Education generally leads to declining birth rates due to increasing empowerment and availability of choices and options. (Figs.**,**)

Social equality is also necessary. It is unrealistic to expect widespread solutions and positive changes for the greater good to be implemented when much of the global population is simply trying to find subsistence levels of nourishment. It is only in the industrialized nations that the majority of people are comfortable enough to be able to even begin addressing such issues. Until we all attain a common basis for discussion a sustainable global society will be impossible to achieve.

A pressing question that must be addressed is if technological advances will be able to save us from the destruction heretofore wrought by the pursuit of technological development. It is not sufficient for the rich nations to try and tell developing nations that they cannot have what we have because it is too destructive. Instead the global transfer of material goods needs to be converted to a global transfer of technology, ideas and information. Industrialized countries are in an excellent position to offer assistance and guidance to developing countries on the basis of our own mistakes and experiences. At the same time it will be necessary for the developed nations to institute their own radical changes. In order for these things to occur, worldwide support for sustainable development must be built.

V. THE WINDS OF CHANGE

A. GLOBAL POLITICAL CLIMATE

Although issues of sustainable development appear to be underrepresented in politics, they are actually being given serious attention at the international level and by individual governments, businesses and citizens. In June of 1992 delegates from around the world convened in Rio de Janeiro for the first "Earth Summit", officially known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). The main purpose of the conference was to address global environmental problems and attempt to determine their causes and outline potential solutions. In particular, these considerations were evaluated in the context of seeking to promote sustainable development programs for the international community as a whole as well as in individual countries. UNCED evolved from three main studies conducted by the United Nations prior to June 1992. These were:

Two major documents resulted from UNCED. The first is known as Agenda 21 and is the United Nations' plan of action to be used for guiding development in environmentally sound ways, with particular emphasis on energy issues. (Box **) The other document was entitled Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living (CFE). This publication is a philosophical one and outlines the position of the United Nations on the feasibility of worldwide implementation of sustainable development. The basic premise of CFE is that gradual changes in philosophy and individual behavior, as well as changes in industrial and governmental practices, will enable the human species to avoid ecological collapse. Eventually we will be able to create a sustainable global society capable of meeting the needs of all of its members indefinitely. The United Nations is devoting resources and time to further the goals of CFE and Agenda 21 through the use of committees, studies and technology assistance to developing nations.

B. NATIONAL POLITICAL CLIMATE

The United States was one of the few members of the United Nations that did not send delegates to the Earth Summit. This is largely due to the environmentally unfriendly Executive Administration of this period. This attitude shifted with the onset of the Clinton Administration. On June 29, 1993 President Clinton issued Executive Order number 12852. This order disbanded the President's Council on Environmental Quality established by Richard Nixon in 1970, and created the President's Council on Sustainable Development to take its place. The main purpose of this council is to advise the President on matters of sustainable development, and to create and recommend a national policy for the implementation of sustainable development within the United States.

C. OTHER PARTIES

Governments are not the only ones taking action. Industries and businesses around the world are making the transition to sustainability.  Private citizens and scientific organizations are also involved in these efforts. CLICK HERE FOR one citizen's outstanding compilation of sustainability indicators.  Necessary technology sharing and knowledge transfer at all levels of society has begun.

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VI. ALTERNATIVES IN AN ENERGY-HUNGRY WORLD

It is obvious that human society has become energy-dependent. Many of the best aspects of our culture, such as advanced medical care, involve processes that require energy. Clearly then it will be necessary to make the transition from fossil fuels, and other environmentally destructive energy sources, to renewable, clean sources. Alternative energy technology is developing rapidly and its use is increasing. Future scenarios for energy use patterns indicate many benefits if alternative technologies comprise the dominant portion of the energy source. (Figs.**,**) A comparison of environmental impacts associated with different energy resources and end-use patterns is given in Figure **. It can be seen from this figure that renewable sources have very low associated impacts. A wide variety of alternative technologies are under consideration and research at this time, such as hydrogen fuel, solar energy from space satellites, nuclear fusion etc. We will look will briefly at  the following four: solar power; wind power; micro-hydropower and biogas.

A. SOLAR POWER

Vast amounts of energy reach Earth's surface as solar insolation. Each year approximately 10 times as much energy is delivered by sunlight than all other known energy resource reserves combined. This amounts to 15,000 times more energy than is consumed each year.  Difficulties with using solar energy are not due to quantity but rather to the diffuse nature of incoming radiation. (Figs.**-**) Advances have been made in technologies designed to collect, concentrate and store solar radiation in recent years. Efficiency and cost-effectiveness of photovoltaic (PV) cells have significantly improved. PV cells consist of thin wafers of silicon that produce a DC current when exposed to sunlight. Maximum energy conversion efficiency achieved with PV cells to date is between 15-30%. Innovative ideas, such as roofing houses with photovoltaic shingles, are beginning to appear.  Construction and operation of residential solar power systems is gaining popularity. Additionally, solar power offers significant promise in terms of low-impact electrification and development in remote areas.

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B. WIND POWER

Approximately 0.25% of solar insolation is converted to wind energy. Although seemingly minor, wind power represents a significant source of potential energy. (Figs.**-**;Table **) It is estimated that 80% of current electricity consumption needs in the United States could be satisfied by the wind energy of North and South Dakota alone.  In Searsburg, Vermont the electricity derived from the operation of 11 state-of-the-art windmills is supplying approximately 1,500 private homes. The state of Idaho also offers outstanding potentials for wind power generation. (Fig.**;Table **)

Currently there are 22 wind power operations in the United States. (Table **;Fig.**) This translates to an installed electrical generation capacity of 1,783 megawatts as of 1998. (Fig.**) Electricity produced from wind power has minimal environmental impacts. (Table **). The only problem with this otherwise outstanding source of useable energy is that wind is intermittent. This is a major drawback and presents technical challenges such as the need to develop functional storage mechanisms.  Without any storage devices the maximum energy derivable from wind power would only meet 10-20% of current electricity demands.

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C. MICRO-HYDROPOWER

The mechanical energy of flowing water can be readily converted to electrical energy using a waterwheel or waterwheel derivative. Indeed, small-scale hydroelectric generators can produce energy more readily than either wind or solar powered systems. This is largely due to the generally permanent nature of many streams and rivers. Only a few feet of head (elevation drop) is required to supply sufficient force to drive a micro-hydro generator. (Table **) Waterwheel and generator technologies are advancing rapidly. (Figs.**-**). It is now feasible for decentralized, small-scale hydroelectric generators to provide for the electrical needs of communities and individuals. When used at the micro-scale hydroelectric power is extremely clean and essentially totally renewable.

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D. BIOGAS

Biogas is the commonly accepted term for methane produced during the anaerobic digestion (link to explanatiuon of anaerobic) of organic matter such as plant detritus, animal wastes or sewage sludge. (Figs.**-**) This methane can be combusted to produce energy. Anaerobic digester technology has long been used as a means of removing BOD from municipal sewage during wastewater treatment operations. Many Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTWs) now use electricity generated via combustion of methane produced in their digesters to supply their facility's energy needs. Excess energy is sold to local power companies. Recently the technology has begun developing at a residential scale. A well run anaerobic digester can supply up to 70% of the total energy needs of an average household. A useful byproduct of the technique is the production of high-grade compost (comprised of undigested residues). Different starting materials will supply different amounts of methane depending on their initial energy content. (Table **,**;Fig.**). Biogas offers unlimited application possibilities. (Table **) Industrial, municipal, domestic and other uses for anaerobic digesters and modified digester systems are being researched.

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VII. CONCLUSIONS

While construction of a sustainable earth may be feasible in currently developing countries that do things right from the start; one cannot help but wonder if this transition is possible in countries that are already built on consumptive economic frameworks. (Table **) In order to facilitate the change to a sustainable earth in nations whose economies are already entirely structured around growth and production it will be necessary to create commercially viable niches for alternative energy technologies and other environmental technologies. By entering the free market these developments will also gain greatly in terms of widespread social acceptance. The idea here is that the current system can be used to protect and foster the new system. In this manner change will occur fairly gradually - a fact that may help ensure its eventual success.

If the necessary paradigm shift is to occur a multifold approach will be required which incorporates all aspects of social, political and economic concerns. The primary focus must be on education and overall quality of life improvements for every Human Being. The United Nations should implement a world tax with funds generated going towards human welfare projects. Page 276 of Caring for the Future gives a sample list of some global projects and their costs (in billions of dollars) as follows

· Primary education for all ~ 5.0-6.0

· Primary health care for all ~ 5.0-7.0

· Water and sanitation for all ~ 10.0-15.0

· Sustainable development projects ~ 80.0

· Combating poverty ~ 15.0

· Shelter for all ~25.0

Also significant will be ongoing development of renewable energy technologies, and a major restructuring of mechanized transport. Continuation of demonstration projects and technology sharing will be crucial. It will be of great importance to begin fair allocation of environmental burdens and costs of remediation to countries in proportion to their contribution to the problem. Global incentives in emissions reductions and pollution taxes should be introduced. Raw materials and other resources should be priced at their true value (when considered in light of environmental impacts and global reserves). Worldwide pollution prevention projects and industrial reforms should be implemented.

In essence, what is required is the cooperation and participation of all people. The United Nations must take the lead as a global government for the emerging global society. Every nation, as well as further delineation of global policy such as Agenda 21 should develop comprehensive policy designed to initiate the change to sustainable lifestyles. The problems we face belong to us all. We are all responsible for the degradation of our global environment. As such we must work together if we are to repair the damage wrought by ignorance. Without this concerted effort for a new future it is currently impossible to determine if Human Beings will have any future at all.

Introduction

"We have the technology to expand the horizons and options of mankind, hasten its descent into the swamp of overpopulation, or wipe the slate clean and let nature try again." - Raymond S. Leonard

A. THE WEB OF LIFE

From the human perspective the Earth can be considered a closed system. We have not yet developed the technology to leave this world behind and head into space in search of a new one. The air we breathe, the water we drink, the resources we use and take for granted are the only ones available to us.

From the human perspective the Earth can be considered a closed system. We have not yet developed the technology to leave this world behind and head into space in search of a new one. The air we breathe, the water we drink, the resources we use and take for granted are the only ones available to us. All global processes, and our human interactions within them, are continuously recycled and inextricably intertwined. Every branch of science teaches us this truth. For example, Ecology shows how all things are interconnected, Quantum Physics shows how all things are inseparable and Thermodynamics shows that nothing is created or destroyed - it only changes form. Religions, mysticism philosophies, all attest to this relationship. The lives of indigenous peoples around the world have been shaped by the knowledge. Recall a quote from Chief Seattle referred to in an earlier module:

"This we know: the Earth does not belong to man, man belongs to the Earth. All things are connected like the blood that unites us all. Man did not weave the web of life, he is but a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web he does to himself " - Chief Seattle (recorded in 1852)

Unfortunately, modem humans are attempting to live outside of the laws and boundaries of our natural world. We are drastically stressing each of Earth's life-support systems, resource cycles, organisms (including Homo sapiens sapiens) and environmental compartments. Micro-scale problems are overlain by macro-scale problems. Regardless of scale, all of these problems are global in scope requiring global efforts of cooperation if solutions are to be found.

In our blind desire to have more, work less and do whatever "feels good", we have totally unbalanced the planetary equilibrium. Human-related impacts to the global environment have reached crisis proportions - a state of affairs that cannot last much longer. Le Chatlier's Principle (from Chemistry) states that a system disturbed from its equilibrium will alter itself in order to establish a new one. Gibbs Free Energy from Thermodynamics also shows that a system will always seek its most stable, steady state. The question is whether or not the human species will be a part of Earth's next equilibrium. If we are then fundamental changes in the way we think about all aspects of human needs and desires will be required. Our ever-increasing understanding of the natural world makes it clear that a new global society able to sustain itself now, and into the future, must evolve. This module draws upon all of the concepts of Environmental Geology thus far, and examines "the bigger picture" of the current state of Earth's affairs, and our human relationship to them. The module should provide you with a unifying picture, and a good review of course material. Re-visit earlier modules if you need to!

Very few people have seen the Earth as a whole.  Here are the thoughts of an astronaut and a cosmonaut on seeing Earth from space:

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VII. CONCLUSIONS

While construction of a sustainable earth may be feasible in currently developing countries that do things right from the start; one cannot help but wonder if this transition is possible in countries that are already built on consumptive economic frameworks. (Table **) In order to facilitate the change to a sustainable earth in nations whose economies are already entirely structured around growth and production it will be necessary to create commercially viable niches for alternative energy technologies and other environmental technologies. By entering the free market these developments will also gain greatly in terms of widespread social acceptance. The idea here is that the current system can be used to protect and foster the new system. In this manner change will occur fairly gradually - a fact that may help ensure its eventual success.

If the necessary paradigm shift is to occur a multifold approach will be required which incorporates all aspects of social, political and economic concerns. The primary focus must be on education and overall quality of life improvements for every Human Being. The United Nations should implement a world tax with funds generated going towards human welfare projects. Page 276 of Caring for the Future gives a sample list of some global projects and their costs (in billions of dollars) as follows

· Primary education for all ~ 5.0-6.0

· Primary health care for all ~ 5.0-7.0

· Water and sanitation for all ~ 10.0-15.0

· Sustainable development projects ~ 80.0

· Combating poverty ~ 15.0

· Shelter for all ~25.0

Also significant will be ongoing development of renewable energy technologies, and a major restructuring of mechanized transport. Continuation of demonstration projects and technology sharing will be crucial. It will be of great importance to begin fair allocation of environmental burdens and costs of remediation to countries in proportion to their contribution to the problem. Global incentives in emissions reductions and pollution taxes should be introduced. Raw materials and other resources should be priced at their true value (when considered in light of environmental impacts and global reserves). Worldwide pollution prevention projects and industrial reforms should be implemented.

In essence, what is required is the cooperation and participation of all people. The United Nations must take the lead as a global government for the emerging global society. Every nation, as well as further delineation of global policy such as Agenda 21 should develop comprehensive policy designed to initiate the change to sustainable lifestyles. The problems we face belong to us all. We are all responsible for the degradation of our global environment. As such we must work together if we are to repair the damage wrought by ignorance. Without this concerted effort for a new future it is currently impossible to determine if Human Beings will have any future at all.

Let's conclude with an interesting perspective:

EARTH'S POPULATION FROM A DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE

IF WE COULD SHRINK THE EARTH'S POPULATION TO A VILLAGE OF PRECISELY 100 PEOPLE, WITH ALL EXISTING HUMAN RATIOS REMAINING THE SAME, THERE WOULD BE:

When one considers our world from such an incredibly compressed perspective, the need for both tolerance and understanding becomes glaringly apparent...

END OF MODULE 12

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY HOMEPAGE

END OF ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY COURSE